Language families and languages
Most languages are grouped into families. A properly defined family should be a genetic unit, which means that all its members should derive from a common ancestor. The ancestor is very seldom known to us directly, since most languages have a very short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many of the features of the common ancestor of related languages by applying comparative method -- a reconstructive procedure worked out by nineteenth-century linguists. In this way one can demonstrate the family status of many of the groupings listed below.
Language families can be subdivided into smaller units, conventionally referred to as "branches" (because the history of a language family is often represented as a "family tree" diagram).
The common ancestor of a family (or branch) is known as its "protolanguage". For example, the reconstructible protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called Proto-Indo-European" (not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing). Sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of Latin ("Vulgar Latin") gave rise to the modern Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers).
There are also constructed languages.
him, and swathed up with flannel, with his holster pistols aside
my gudesire had seen him the last time upon earth--the very
itself was not there--it wasna its hour, it's likely; for he
And another answered, 'The jackanape will be here betimes the
ghaist, or the deevil in his likeness, said, 'Weel, piper, hae ye
settle without his honour's receipt.
'Ye shall hae that for a tune of the pipes, Steenie,' said the
heard it when they were worshipping Satan at their meetings, and
Redgauntlet Castle, but never very willingly; and now he grew
pipes wi' him.
'MacCallum, ye limb of Beelzebub,' said the fearfu' Sir Robert,
Donald of the Isles. But he gave my gudesire a nudge as he
the chanter was of steel, and heated to a white heat; so he had
himself again, and said he was faint and frightened, and had not
do little else here; and it's ill speaking between a fou man.html">man and
said to keep the king's messenger in hand while he cut the head
referred for particulars to Pitscottie's HISTORY OF SCOTLAND.]
like a man, and said he came neither to eat, or drink. or make
money.html">money he had paid, and to get a discharge for it; and he was so
conscience-sake (he had no power to say the holy name) and as he
to give him his ain.
The appearance gnashed its teeth and laughed, but it took from a
is your receipt, ye pitiful cur; and for the money, my dog-whelp
Robert roared aloud, 'Stop, though, thou sack-doudling son of a
and you must return on this very day twelvemonth, to pay your
'I refer mysell to God's pleasure, and not to yours.'
.
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